Moldavian ruler Stephen the Great’s reign, revisited

A debunking perspective on Stephen the Great's geo-strategy in the 15th century

Christine Leșcu, 05.08.2023, 14:00

The Romanian historian Liviu Campeanu, in 2012, while on a research stage at the Prussian Cultural Heritages Secret State Archives in Berlin, came across the manuscript of the diary kept by Liborius Nacker, the Secretary general of the Teutonic Order. Written in late 15th century, the document, whose existence had already been known to historians, mentions the contribution of the Teutonic knights who accompanied Polish King Ioan Albert in his campaign against then the Moldavian ruler Stephen the great. Resulting in the famous defeat of the Poles in the battle of Cosmin Woods, Codrii Cosminului, in Romanian, the campaign can be viewed in a fresh perspective and a more nuanced one, at that, according to the documents discovered by historian Liviu Campeanu. Actually, the discovered documents provided the starting point for Liviu Campeanus book, The Crusade against Stephen the Great. The Cosmin Woods 1497. Brought out by the Humanitas publishers in 2023, the volume depicts an even more complex and detailed picture of the woiwode. Stephen the Great s image was intensely hyped up according to the communist historiography.

The Romanian Orthodox Church already canonized him as Stephen the Great and the Holy. Notwithstanding, in Liviu Campeanus volume, a more comprehensive and objective analysis is provided, of Moldavian woiwodes 47-year-long reign, from 1457 to 1504. It should be noted, though, that his most remarkable achievements are never questioned in the book. A telling example of that is Stephen the Greats stance towards the Ottoman Porte. We all remember Stephen the great has usually been described as a long-term and staunch anti-Ottoman opponent.

Historian Liviu Campeanu:

“Nothing new for the historians, yet for the lay public, for whom Stephen the Greats profile as a mighty crusader is all too familiar, a profile that has been constantly been build up towards, in the past two or three decades and even earlier, it may seem baffling to find out that, in earnest, Stephen the Great was an ally of the Sultan. Of his 47-year-old reign, Stephen the Great was at war with the Turks for 13 years, while of those 13 years, there were only three when he had to face large-scale Ottoman campaigns or massive Ottoman invasions that, on average, were conducted for about two months a year. Therefore, for 6 months out of 47 years he properly and openly fought the Ottoman Empire. Let me stress that once again, the state of belligerence lasted for about 13 years, while for the remaining number of years of the 47-year-old reign, Stephen the Great was an ally of the Sultan. “

The alliance with the Ottoman Empire, just like the state of belligerence, at that time largely depended on specific circumstances and on the medieval states need for mutual help. The extremely volatile peace of the time, and the almost constant warlike atmosphere lead up to changes in the vassalage relationships, in keeping with the immediate interests and the looming dangers. As for Stephen the Greats Moldavia, it was no exception to that either, in Central and Eastern Europe.

Liviu Campeanu:

“I have been trying to present to the public the results I have achieved, precisely thanks to the documents discovered in 2012 in the Archives of the Teutonic Order that have been preserved in Berlin, to this day: the fact that Moldavia had been tributary to the Ottoman Empire about 20 years earlier that it had been usually known. So, according to historiography, everybody agreed that Moldavia began to pay tribute in 1455 or 1456. But I discovered documents clearly attesting the fact that twenty years earlier already, so from 1432, Moldavia had become a stipendiary for the Ottoman Empire. So it was in that tradition that Stephen the Great fit in, he actually paid the tribute for three decades of his glorious reign, which is not a negative aspect. Perhaps very few people know that even the Hapsburgs paid the tribute to the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, what with the French King Francis the 2nd, being Suleiman the Magnificents ally in the first half of the 16th century. So such alliances and peace or mutual help treaties were just as normal at that time, and Stephen the Great was no exception to that himself. Besides, thanks to the tribute he paid, not only did he secure peace with the Ottoman Empire, but also, he got proper help from the Turks in various campaigns and battles he fought with the neighbors. Speaking of which, what I have in mind is Matthias Corvinuss Hungary or Casimir the 4th s Poland or Wallachia, where war was in full swing, pitting the Dracula against the Dan boyar families in the second half of the 15th century. In that conflict, Stephen the Great intervened on a number of occasions, sometimes even with Ottoman support. “

At the time when Stephen the Great was at war with the Ottoman Empire, one of his most remarkable victories occurred, that of January, 1475, when he defeated Soliman Pasa in Vaslui. Following that victory, Pope Sixtus the 4th named him the Athlete of Christendom. However, the title should be viewed only in close connection to that particular moment of his reign. Subsequently, from 1486 to the year of his death, 1504, Stephen the Great complied with the politics of the Sublime Porte. And there is more to it than that: the Ottoman Empire was his ally in the conflict with the Polish King Jan Olbracht, resulting in Moldavians win in the battle of Cosmin Woods, Codrii Cosminului, in Romanian, in September 1497. Bach then, in the Cosmin Woods Battle, two great alliance systems went against one another: the Polish-Lithuanian Union and its vassals, the Duchy of Mazovia and the Teutonic Order, on one hand, and, on the other hand, Moldavia, with its allies, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate. But how exactly the buildup to the conflict occurred, even though Stephen the Great had become Polands vassal in 1495, through a treaty signed in Colomeea? Here is Liviu Campeanu once again, this time outlining the historical background of that.

“It was precisely from that kind of vassalage and the responsibilities Stephen the Great and the Polish King Casimir the 4th mutually took in Colomeea, in 1485, that this conflict sprang from. In effect, in 1484, Stephen the Great had lost to the Turks the Chilia and Cetatea Alba fortresses. Then he tried to regain them from the ottomans totally on his own, but that was virtually impossible. And then he veered towards the King of Poland. The Polish King consented to helping him, on condition that the former took a vassalage oath, which actually happened, in September 1485. However, the military aid made available by Casimir the 4th was insufficient and in no way met Stephen the Greats expectations. And then, in 1487, the Pope proclaimed an anti-Ottoman crusade across the entire Christendom and the Crusaders Army massed in Poland. Yet he did not rush to help Stephen the Great, just as the Colomeea Treaty stipulated, but Prince Jan Olbracht, still a prince back then and the supreme commander of the crusaders army, hijacked the crusade in Podolia. It was then that the great rift occurred, between Stephen the Great and the Polish Kings. Several minor border conflicts occurred as well, on both sides, culminating with the conflict of 1497. “

Notwithstanding, King Ian Olbrachts campaign against Stephen the Great had an inconclusive ending. Considering the intricacies of the inter-state alliances of that time and also taking into account his victories and the relationships he set with the other monarchs, the Moldavian woiwode Stephen the Great was one of Central and Eastern Europes leading political actors of his time.